Introduction

India’s solid waste problems are compounding due to inadequate eco-friendly treatment. Many old dumpsites are releasing toxins that pose environmental and health risks. The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA)recognizes unlined dump sites as sources of air and water pollution. The Swachh Bharat Mission has mandated small cities to clear old dumpsites by March 31, 2023, and larger cities by March 31, 2024 (MoHUA2021). In 2020, it reported an annual loss of 1,250 hectares of land due to waste disposal (SBMU 2020). As per the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)report on solid waste management, India generates 1.6 lakh tons per day (TPD)of solid waste, with 1.52 lakh TPD of it collected at 95.4% efficiency. Of this, 50% (0.79 lakh TPD) is treated and 18.4% (0.3 lakh TPD) is landfilled. The number of dumpsites in India exceeds landfills. Further, several states lack landfill sites(CPCB 2020)